Filosofie biologie

Filosofii biologie lze vidět jako pokračovatele empirické tradice a naturalismu. Mnoho současných filosofů biologie se vymezuje ústřední otázce rozdílu mezi živým a neživým. Mezi hlavní otázky, kterými se dnes filosofie biologie zabývá patří:

• „Co je to druh?“
• „Jak se evolučně vyvinula racionalita?“
• „Jak organismy koordinují své společné chování?“
• „Jakou roli hraje v biologické evoluci evolučně vývojová biologie?“
• „Jaké sociální hodnoty odráží naše biologické porozumění rasám, sexualitě nebo pohlaví?“
• „Jak působí přirozený výběr mimo vlastní evoluci organizmů?“

O filozofii biologie se také mluví jako o bioetice: Filozofické disciplíně, která by měla pomoci rozklíčovat základní lidské hodnoty a vyřešit etické otázky kolem nových technologií. Mezi takové otázky lze zařadit:

• „Co je to život?“[1]
• „Čím je člověk jedinečný?“;
• „Jaké jsou evoluční základy morálního myšlení?“;
• „Jaké biologické faktory ovlivňují naše estetické soudy?“;
• „Jak je evoluce slučitelná s křesťanstvím a dalšími náboženskými systémy?“

Velkou část diskuze filosofie biologie tvoří analýza různých současných i historických pohledů, které biologové zastávají a jaké kulturní či sociální sounáležitosti tyto pohledy doprovázely. Mezi ně patří:

• Vědecký redukcionismus je názor, že veškeré biologické procesy je možné zredukovat na mikroskopické chemické reakce a fyzické interakce
• Holismus znamená v biologii pohled na makroskopická působení živých organismů. Například evoluce je dobrým příkladem pozorování děje s velkým měřítkem tím, že aplikujeme statistické výpočty na pravděpodobnosti přežití jednotlivce.[2]
• Vitalismus je pohled biology od 19. století povětšinou odmítaný, že existuje jakási životní energie (nazývaná vis-viva)

V tomto článku byl použit překlad textu z článku Philosophy of biology na anglické Wikipedii.

• Amundson, R., 2005, The Changing Role of the Embryo in Evolutionary Thought, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Ayala, F. & Arp, R. (eds.), 2009, Contemporary Debates in Philosophy of Biology, Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell.
• Barberousse, A., Morange, M. & Pradeu, T. (2009), Mapping the Future of Biology. Evolving Concepts and Theories, Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science, 266, Dordrecht, Springer.
• Bechtel, W., 2005, Discovering Cell Mechanisms, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Bedau, M. & Humphreys, P., 2008, Emergence: Contemporary Readings in Philosophy and Science, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press.
• Brandon, R., 1988, "The Levels of Selection: A Hierarchy of Interactors", in H. Plotkin, ed., The Role of Behavior in Evolution, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, p. 51-71.
• Brandon, R., 1990, Adaptation and environment, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Brandon, R. & Burian, R. (eds), 1984, Genes, Organisms and Populations. Controversies Over the Units of Selection, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press.
• Burian, R., 1983, "Adaptation", in M. Greene, ed., Dimensions of Darwinism, New York & Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, p. 287-314.
• Bunge, M., & Mahner, M., 1997, Foundations of Biophilosophy, Berlín, Springer
• Buss, L., 1987, The Evolution of Individuality, Princeton, Princeton University Press.
• Byron, J. M., 2007, "Whence Philosophy of Biology ?", British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 58(3), p. 409-422.
• Craver, C., 2007, Explaining the Brain : Mechanisms and the Mosaic Unity of Neuroscience, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Cummins, R., 1975, "Functional Analysis", The Journal of Philosophy, 72, p. 741-764.
• Darwin, C., 1859, The Origin of Species, Paris, GF, 1992.
• Dassow (von), G. & Munro, E., 1999, "Modularity in Animal Development and Evolution: Elements of a Conceptual Framework for EvoDevo", Journal of Experimental Zoology B (Mol Dev Evol), 285, p. 307-325.
• Dawkins, R., 1976, The Selfish Gene, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Dawkins, R., 1982, The Extended Phenotype, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Dawkins, R., 1986, The Blind Watchmaker, New York, Norton.
• Dennett, D., 1995, Darwin's Dangerous Idea, New York, Simon and Schuster.
• Dupré J., 2005, Darwin's Legacy: What Evolution Means Today. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Dupré J., 2002, Humans and Other Animals. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Dupré J., 1995, The Disorder of Things: Metaphysical Foundations of the Disunity of Science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Eldredge, N., 1984, "Large-scale biological entities and the evolutionary process", Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association 1984, vol. 2, p. 551-566.
• Falk, R., 2000, "The gene : A concept in tension", in Beurton, P., Falk, R. & Rheinberger, H-J. (eds.), The Concept of the Gene in Development and Evolution. Historical and Epistemological Perspectives, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, p. 317-348.
• Fisher, R.A., 1930, The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, Oxford, Clarendon Press.
• Francis, R., 2003, Why Men Won't Ask for Directions: The Seductions of Sociobiology, Princeton, Princeton University Press.
• Gayon, J., 1998, Darwinism's Struggle for Survival : Heredity and the Hypothesis of Natural Selection. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Ghiselin, M., 1974, "A Radical Solution to the Species Problem", Systematic Zoology, 23, p. 536-44.
• Gilbert, S.F., 2001, "Ecological developmental biology : developmental biology meets the real world", Developmental Biology, 233, p. 1-12.
• Gilbert, S.F., 2002, "The genome in its ecological context", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 981, p. 202-218.
• Gilbert, S.F. & Epel, D., 2009, Ecological Developmental Biology, Sunderland, MA, Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publishers.
• Gilbert, S.F., Opitz, J.M. & Raff, R. A., 1996, "Resynthesizing Evolutionary and Developmental Biology", Developmental Biology, 173, p. 357-372.
• Godfrey-Smith, P., 1993, "Functions : Consensus without unity", Pacific Philosophical Quarterly, 74, p. 196-208.
• Godfrey-Smith, P., 2000, "The Replicator in Retrospect", Biology and Philosophy, 15, p. 403-423.
• Godfrey-Smith, P., 2001, "Three kinds of adaptationism", in Orzack, S. & Sober, E., eds., 2001, Adaptationism and Optimality, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Godfrey-Smith, P., 2004, "Genes do not Encode Information for Phenotypic Traits", in Hitchcock, C., ed., Contemporary Debates in Philosophy of Science, Malden, Blackwell, p. 275-289.
• Godfrey-Smith, P., 2006, "The strategy of model-based science", Biology and Philosophy, 21, p. 725–740.
• Godfrey-Smith, P., 2007, "Conditions for evolution by natural selection", The Journal of Philosophy, 104, p. 489-516.
• Godfrey-Smith, P., 2008, "Varieties of Population Structure and the Levels of Selection", British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 59, p. 25-50.
• Godfrey-Smith, P., 2009, Darwinian Populations and Natural Selection, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Godfrey-Smith, P. & Sterelny, K., 2007, "Biological Information", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (online).
• Gould, S. J., 1977, Ontogeny and Phylogeny, Cambridge, MA, Belknap Press.
• Gould, S. J., 1980, The Panda's Thumb, New York, Norton.
• Gould, S. J., 2002, The Structure of Evolutionary Theory, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press..
• Gould, S. J. & Lewontin, R., 1979, "The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm : A Critique of the Adaptationist Programme", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 205, p. 581-98.
• Gould, S. J. & Lloyd, E., 1999, "Individuality and adaptation across levels of selection: How shall we name and generalize the unit of Darwinism?", PNAS USA 96(21), p. 11904-11909.
• Grafen, A. & Ridley, M. (eds.), 2006, Richard Dawkins: how a scientist changed the way we think, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Griffiths, P., 2001, "Genetic Information: A Metaphor In Search of a Theory", Philosophy of Science, 68(3), p. 394-412.
• Griffiths, P., 2006, "Function, Homology and Character Individuation", Philosophy of Science, 73(1), p. 1-25.
• Griffiths, P., 2007, "The Phenomena of Homology", Biology and Philosophy, 22(5), p. 643-658.
• Griffiths, P. & Gray, R., 1994, "Developmental Systems and Evolutionary Explanation", Journal of Philosophy, 91, p. 277-304.
• Griffiths, P. & Gray, R., 2004, "The Developmental Systems Perspective : Organism-environment systems as units of development and evolution", in Pigliucci, M. & Preston, K. (eds.), Phenotypic Integration: Studying the Ecology and Evolution of Complex Phenotypes, Oxford & New York, Oxford University Press, p. 409-430.
• Griffiths, P. & Stotz, K., 2007, "Gene", in Hull, D. & Ruse, M. (eds.)
• Hall, B. K., 1992, Evolutionary Developmental Biology, New York, Chapman and Hall.
• Hamburger, V., 1980, "Embryology and the Modern Synthesis in Evolutionary Theory", in Mayr, E. & Provine, W. B, eds., p. 97-112.
• Hempel, C. G. (1965), Aspects of Scientific Explanation, New York, The Free Press.
• Hull, D., 1969, "What philosophy of biology is not", Journal of the History of Biology, 2(1), p. 241-268.
• Hull, D., 1974, Philosophy of Biological Science, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall.
• Hull, D., 1976, "Are Species Really Individuals ?", Systematic Zoology, 25, p. 174-191.
• Hull, D., 1977, "A Logical Empiricist Looks at Biology", The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 28(2), p. 181-189.
• Hull, D., 1978, "A Matter of Individuality", Philosophy of Science, 45, p. 335-60.
• Hull, D., 1980, "Individuality and Selection", Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 11, p. 11-332.
• Hull, D., 1981, "Units of Evolution : A Metaphysical Essay", in Jensen, U.J. & Harré, R. eds., The Philosophy of Evolution, Brighton, England, The Harvester Press, p. 23-44.
• Hull, D., 1986, "On Human Nature", Proceedings of the Philosophy of Science Association, ii, p. 3-13.
• Hull, D., 1988, Science as a Process : An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science, Chicago, Chicago University Press.
• Hull, D., 1989a, The Metaphysics of Evolution, Albany, State University of New York Press.
• Hull, D., 1989b, "A Function for Actual Examples in Philosophy of Science", in Ruse, M. (ed.) What the Philosophy of Biology Is : Essays dedicated to David Hull, Dordrecht, Holland, Kluwer Academic Publishing, p. 313-324.
• Hull, D., 2002, "Recent philosophy of biology : A review", Acta Biotheoretica, 50, 117-128.
• Hull, D. & Ruse, M., eds., 1998, The Philosophy of Biology, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Hull, D. & Ruse, M., eds., 2007, The Cambridge Companion to the Philosophy of Biology, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Jacob, F., 1970, La Logique du vivant. Une histoire de l'hérédité, Paris, Gallimard.
• Kauffman, S., 1993, The Origins of Order : Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Kimura, M., 1983, The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Kitcher, P. S., "1953 and all That. A Tale of Two Sciences", Philosophy of Science, 93(3), p. 335-373.
• Kitcher, P. S., 1993, "Function and Design", Midwest Studies in Philosophy, 18(1), p. 379-397.
• Krohs, U. & Kroes, P. (eds.) 2009, Functions in biological and artificial worlds. Comparative philosophical perspectives. Cambridge, MA & London/UK, MIT Press.
• Laubichler, M., 2007, "Evolutionary Developmental Biology", in Hull, D. & Ruse, M. (eds.), p. 342-360.
• Laubichler, M. & Maienschein, J., 2007, From Embryology to Evo-Devo, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press.
• Laland, K., Odling-Smee, J. & Gilbert, S. F., 2008, "EvoDevo and Niche Construction: Building Bridges", Journal of Experimental Zoology (Mol Dev Evol), 310(B), p. 1-18.
• Levins, R. & Lewontin, R., 1985, The Dialectical Biologist, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
• Lewens, T., 2007, "Adaptation", in D. Hull and M. Ruse (eds.), p. 1-21.
• Lewens, T., 2009, "Seven kinds of adaptationism", Biology and Philosophy 24(2), p. 161-182.
• Lewontin, R., 1970, "Units of selection", Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 1, p. 1-18.
• Lewontin, R., 1978, "Adaptation", Scientific American, 239(9), p. 156-169.
• Lewontin, R., 1983, "The Organism as the Subject and Object of Evolution", Scientia, 118, p. 63-82.
• Lewontin, R., 2000, The Triple Helix, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
• Lloyd, E., 1993, The Structure and Confirmation of Evolutionary Theory, Princeton University Press, 1ère éd. 1988.
• Lloyd, E., 2005, "Why the Gene will not return", Philosophy of Science, 72, p. 287-310.
• Lloyd, E., 2007, "Units and Levels of Selection", in Hull, D. & Ruse, M. (eds.), p. 44-65.
• Machamer, P., Darden, L., Craver, C., 2000, "Thinking about mechanisms", Philosophy of Science, 67(1), p. 1-25.
• Maynard-Smith, J., 1969, "The status of neo-Darwinism", in Waddington, C. H., ed. Towards a Theoretical Biology, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press.
• Maynard-Smith, J., 1976, "Group Selection", Quarterly Review of Biology, 51, p. 277-283.
• Maynard-Smith, J., 1987, "How to model evolution", in Dupré, J., ed., The Latest on the Best: Essays on Evolution and Optimality, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, p. 119-131.
• Maynard Smith, J., 2000, "The Concept of Information in Biology", Philosophy of Science, 67, p. 177-194.
• Maynard-Smith, J. & Szathmary, E., 1995, The Major Transitions in Evolution, Oxford & New York, W. H. Freeman Spektrum.
• Mayr, E., 1961, "Cause and effect in biology", Science, 134, p. 1501-1506.
• Mayr, E., 1963, Animal Species and Evolution, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
• Mayr, E., 1982, The Growth of Biological Thought, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
• Mayr, E., 2004, What Makes Biology Unique?, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Mayr, E. & Provine, W. B., eds., 1980, The Evolutionary Synthesis, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
• Michod, R., 1999, Darwinian Dynamics: Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press.
• Mills, S. & Beatty, J., 1979, "The propensity interpretation of fitness", Philosophy of Science, 46, p. 263–286.
• Monod, J., 1970, Le Hasard et la nécessité, Paris, Seuil.
• Morange, M., 1998 (1994), A History of Molecular Biology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Morange, M., 2009, "Articulating Different Modes of Explanation : The Present Boundary in Biological Research", in Barberousse, A., Morange, M. & Pradeu, T. (eds.)
• Müller, G.B., 2007, "Evo-devo : extending the evolutionary synthesis", Nature Reviews Genetics, 8, p. 943-949.
• Nagel, E., 1961, The Structure of Science, New York, Harcourt Brace.
• Neander, K., 1991, "The Teleological Notion of Function", Australian Journal of Philosophy, 69, p. 454-468.
• Odling-Smee, J., Laland, K. & Feldman, M., 2003, Niche Construction. The Neglected Process in Evolution, Princeton, Princeton University Press.
• Okasha, S., 2006, Evolution and the Levels of Selection, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Oyama, S., 2000, The Ontogeny of Information, Durham, N.C., Duke University Press, 1ère éd. 1985.
• Oyama, S., Griffiths, P. & Gray, R., eds., 2001, Cycles of Contingency, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press.
• Raff, R. A. & Raff, E. C., eds., 1987, Development as an Evolutionary Process, New York, Alan R. Liss. Inc.
• Raff, R., 1996, The Shape of Life: Genes, Development and the Evolution of Animal Form, Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
• Reeve, H. K. & Sherman, P. W., 1993, "Adaptation and the goals of evolutionary research", Quarterly Review of Biology, 68, p. 1-32.
• Rosenberg, A., 1985, The Structure of Biological Science, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Rosenberg, A., 1997, "Reductionism Redux : Computing the Embryo", Biology and Philosophy, 12, p. 445-470.
• Rosenberg, A., 2007, "Reductionism (and Antireductionism) in Biology", in Hull, D. & Ruse, M. (eds.), p. 120-138.
• Rosenberg, A. & McShea, D. W., 2008, Philosophy of Biology. A Contemporary Introduction, New York, Routledge.
• Ruse, M., 1971, "Reduction, Replacement, and Molecular Biology", Dialectica, 25, p. 38-72.
• Ruse, M., 1973, The Philosophy of Biology, London, Hutchinson University Press.
• Sarkar, S., 1996, "Decoding 'Coding' — Information and DNA", BioScience, 46, p. 857-864.
• Sarkar, S., 2004, "Genes encode information for phenotypic traits", in Hitchcock, C. (ed.) Contemporary Debates in Philosophy of Science, Malden, Blackwell, pp. 259–274.
• Sarkar, S., 2005, Molecular models of life: philosophical papers on molecular biology. Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press.
• Sattler, R., 1986, Biophilosophy: Analytic and holjstic perspectives, Heidelberg/New York, Springer.
• Schaffner, K., 1967, "Approaches to reduction", Philosophy of Science, 34, p. 137-147.
• Smart, J. J. C., 1963, Philosophy and Scientific Realism, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, & New York, Humanities Press.
• Sober, E., 1984, The Nature of selection. Evolutionary Theory in Philosophical Focus, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 2nd ed., Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1993.
• Sober, E., 1993, Philosophy of biology, Boulder, Westview Press, 2nd ed., 2000.
• Sober, E., 1994, From a Biological Point of View – Essays in Evolutionary Philosophy, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Sober, E., 2008, Evidence and Evolution : The Logic Behind the Science, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Sober, E. (ed.), Conceptual Issues in Evolutionary Biology, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1984, 1994, 2006.
• Sterelny, K., 1995, "Understanding Life : Recent Work in Philosophy of Biology", The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 46(2), p. 155-183.
• Sterelny, K., 2001, "Niche construction, developmental systems, and the extended replicator", in Oyama, S., Griffiths, P. E. & Gray, R. D., eds., Cycles of Contingency. Developmental Systems and Evolution, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press.
• Sterelny, K. & Griffiths, P., 1999, "Sex and Death. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Biology", Chicago, Chicago University Press.
• Sterelny, K. & Kitcher, P., 1988, "The Return of The Gene", The Journal of Philosophy, 85, p. 339-60.
• Torday JS. A central theory of biology. Med Hypotheses. 2015 Jul;85(1):49-57.
• von Sydow, M., 2012, "From Darwinian Metaphysics towards Understanding the Evolution of Evolutionary Mechanisms." A Historical and Philosophical Analysis of Gene-Darwinism and Universal Darwinism. Universitätsverlag Göttingen. (online)
• von Sydow, M., 2014, "‘Survival of the Fittest’ in Darwinian Metaphysics - Tautology or Testable Theory? (pp. 199–222) In E. Voigts, B. Schaff &M. Pietrzak-Franger (Eds.). Reflecting on Darwin. Farnham, London: Ashgate.
• Waddington, C. H., 1940, Organisers and Genes, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Waters, C. K., 1990, "Why the Antireductionist Consensus Won't Survive the Case of Classical Mendelian Genetics", in Fine, A., Forbes, M. & Wessells, L. (eds.), Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, vol. 1 : Contributed Papers, p. 125-139.
• Waters, C. K., 2007, "Molecular Genetics", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (online).
• West-Eberhard, M. J., 2003, Phenotypic Plasticity and Evolution, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Williams, G. C., 1966, Adaptation and Natural Selection, Princeton, Princeton University Press.
• Williams, G. C., 1992, Natural Selection: Domains, Levels, and Challenges, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Williams, M. B., 1970, "Deducing the consequences of evolution : A mathematical model", Journal of Theoretical Biology, 29, p. 343-385.
• Williams, M. B., 1981, "Similarities and differences between evolutionary theory and the theories of physics", Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association (1980), Volume Two: Symposia and Invited Papers, p. 385-396.
• Wilson, E. O., 1975, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, Cambridge, Belknap Press.
• Wilson, E. O., 1978, On Human Nature, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
• Wimsatt, W., 2007, Re-Engineering Philosophy for Limited Beings, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
• Witzany, G., 2010, Biocommunication and Natural Genome Editing. Dordrecht, Springer.
• Wright, L., 1973, "Functions", Philosophical Review, 82(2), p. 139-168.
• Wright, S., 1980, "Genic and organismic evolution", Evolution, 34, p. 825-843.

• Obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu filozofie biologie na Wikimedia Commons
• Philosophy of Biology entry by Paul Griffiths in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Roberta Millstein's compilation of History and Philosophy of Biology Resources